Scientific References

This page lists the peer-reviewed sources referenced throughout our Clinical Evidence pages. We link to primary research wherever possible so our claims can be checked, not just taken on trust.

  1. Anders JJ, Arany PR, Baxter GD, Lanzafame RJ. Light-Emitting Diode Therapy and Low-Level Light Therapy Are Photobiomodulation Therapy. Photobiomodul Photomed Laser Surg. 2019;37(2):63–65.
  2. Jacques SL. Optical properties of biological tissues: a review. Phys Med Biol. 2013;58(11):R37–R61.
  3. Huang YY, Chen ACH, Carroll JD, Hamblin MR. Biphasic dose response in low level light therapy. Dose Response. 2009;7(4):358–383.
  4. Huang YY, Sharma SK, Carroll J, Hamblin MR. Biphasic dose response in low level light therapy – an update. Dose Response. 2011;9(4):602–618.
  5. Hamblin MR. Mechanisms and applications of the anti-inflammatory effects of photobiomodulation. AIMS Biophys. 2017;4(3):337–361.
  6. Cardoso FDS, Barrett DW, Wade Z, et al. Photobiomodulation of Cytochrome c Oxidase by Chronic Transcranial Laser in Young and Aged Brains. Front Neurosci. 2022;16:818005.
  7. Chow RT, Johnson MI, Lopes-Martins RAB, Bjordal JM. Efficacy of low-level laser therapy in the management of neck pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet. 2009;374(9705):1897–1908.
  8. Huang ZY, Ma J, Chen J, et al. The effectiveness of low-level laser therapy for nonspecific chronic low back pain: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arthritis Res Ther. 2015;17:360.
  9. de la Barra Ortiz HA, Parizotto NA, Liebano RE. Comparison of the effectiveness of high-intensity laser therapy versus low-level laser therapy in musculoskeletal disorders: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Lasers Med Sci. 2026;41.
  10. Vanin AA, Verhagen E, Barboza SD, et al. Photobiomodulation therapy for the improvement of muscular performance and reduction of muscular fatigue associated with exercise in healthy people: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lasers Med Sci. 2018;33(1):181–214.
  11. Leal-Junior ECP, Lopes-Martins RAB, Bjordal JM. Clinical and scientific recommendations for the use of photobiomodulation therapy in exercise performance enhancement and post-exercise recovery. Braz J Phys Ther. 2019;23(1):71–75.
  12. Ferraresi C, Huang YY, Hamblin MR. Photobiomodulation in human muscle tissue: an advantage in sports performance? J Biophotonics. 2016;9(11–12):1273–1299.
  13. Ferlito JV, Ferlito MV, Leal-Junior ECP, Tomazoni SS, De Marchi T. Comparison between cryotherapy and photobiomodulation in muscle recovery: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lasers Med Sci. 2022;37(3):1375–1388.
  14. Luo WT, Lee CJ, Tam KW, Huang TW. Effects of Low-Level Laser Therapy on Muscular Performance and Soreness Recovery in Athletes: A Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Sports Health. 2022;14(5):687–693.
  15. Alayat MS, Sroge RA, Alshiakh FM, et al. The Effectiveness of Photobiomodulation Therapy on Perineal Pain and Wound Healing After Episiotomy—A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Med. 2026;15(3):964.
  16. Glass GE. Photobiomodulation: A Systematic Review of the Oncologic Safety of Low-Level Light Therapy for Aesthetic Skin Rejuvenation. Aesthet Surg J. 2023;43(2):sjad018.
  17. Vital de Azevedo WM, de Souza K, Defante ML, et al. Photobiomodulation and sleep quality: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lasers Med Sci. 2026;41:122.

This page reflects the peer-reviewed literature available at the time of writing and will be updated as new evidence is published. It is intended for general educational purposes and should not be understood as medical advice for any individual.